浅析侵权主体重叠追偿制度----从两起伤害案件中引起的思考
案例一:王某某与李某某发生纠纷,相互打架,王某某被李某某用草刀砍伤手腕,手腕部伸肌腱被砍断,致王某某重伤乙级。王某某到甲市人民医院住院治疗,甲市人民医院在为王某某进行肌腱吻合手术时,将一根肌腱遗漏,致使王某某在先行手术逾合后再次在甲市人民医院切开手腕行肌腱吻合手术,造成王某某多花费两倍的医疗费,并造成王某某残疾。在诉讼中王某某要求李某某赔偿所有医疗费、残疾赔偿金、残疾者生活补偿费等。甲市人民法院经审理判决李某某赔偿王某某所有医疗费、残疾赔偿金、残疾者生活补偿费等。
案例二:罗甲与罗乙因纠纷被罗乙用小石头击伤前额部,致罗甲为轻伤乙级,罗甲到县人民医院住院治疗。罗甲治愈出院时,县人民医院出具出院证明称:罗甲伤口内存异物需继续治疗,且需继续治疗费若干元。后罗甲提起诉讼,县人民法院判决罗乙赔偿罗甲医疗费、继续治疗费等费用。
上述两案,李某某、罗乙的行为均侵害了王某某、罗甲的生命健康权,依法应当承担刑事责任及人身损害赔偿民事责任。但王某某在甲市人民医院的治疗过程中,甲市人民医院明显存在医疗过错,致使王某某再次做手术并造成王某某残疾;罗甲在县人民医院的治疗过程中,县人民医院也明显存在医疗过错,致使罗甲伤口内的异物没有清除而需要继续治疗。人民医院在治疗过程中的过错显然给王某某、罗甲造成更大的损失。这种因受害人被他人致伤到医院治疗,在医院的治疗过程中医院明显存在医疗责任并造成更大的损失,这种扩大了的损失应当由谁赔偿呢?当前审判实务中一般如上述两个法院一样要求伤害案件的侵权行为人承担全部赔偿责任。受害人不会也不愿意向医院请求赔偿,要求医院承担医疗责任,认为没有侵权行为人的侵权行为,受害人就不可能去医院治疗,也就不可能存在医院的医疗责任,侵权行为人应当承担全部责任。法院在审判过程中一般也不审查受害人在医院治疗过程中是否存在医疗责任,不考虑造成受害人的损失是否存在责任主体的重叠,在程序上就侵权行为人对医院可能存在的医疗责任提出的抗辩,也只是告知侵权行为人可以向有关机构提出医疗鉴定,否则判决侵权行为人承担全部责任。
现代医学对人身损害的治疗已有很高的水平,一般情况下医院的治疗应该能够使患者正常康复,不应该出现如做伤口吻合手术时遗漏肌腱未接,缝合伤口时没有清除干净伤口内的异物而需继续治疗等现象。如果把医院的医疗责任造成的损失全部归究于侵权行为人,显然违背了罪刑相适应原则,背离过错与责任相一致的公平司法理念,也很难使侵权行为人从心里服判。笔者认为要公正处理类似案件,现有的法律和司法解释都没有明确具体的规定,只有在诉讼程序上作相关处理,即侵权行为人认为受害人在医院的治疗过程中医院的治疗行为存在过错并造成受害人更重的伤害、或扩大了损失、或加重了侵权行为人的责任等,且据此提出抗辩,法院应当对侵权行为人的抗辩理由和受害人在医院治疗的相关材料进行审查,如果有证据证明受害人在医院治疗过程中医院可能存在医疗过错,则应当中止案件的审理,并告知受害人向法院提起民事诉讼要求医院承担医疗责任,同时告知侵权行为人中止案件的审理可能产生的后果:一、受害人胜诉,医院承担责任,侵权行为人减轻责任;二、受害人败诉,医院不承担责任,侵权行为人不仅要承担全部责任,而且要承担受害人因败诉而受到的损失。
对此类案件作程序上的处理,也只是权宜之计,根本的解决方法是要建立侵权主体重叠追偿制度,即在同一案件中,基于案件事实的继续而出现侵权主体重叠,应由主侵权事实(或者说基本侵权事实)的侵权行为人,即主侵权行为人首先承担全部责任,再由主侵权行为人向次侵权行为人追偿。侵权主体重叠不同于多个主体共同侵权,虽然两者均为侵权造成他人损害,在侵权主体上都存在主体的复合性,即有二个以上的侵权主体存在,但两者在侵权行为、侵权结果、侵权责任等方面有着明显的区别。
共同侵权的侵权行为具有共同性,在主观方面各个侵权主体之间存在着致人损害的共同意思联络、共同过失、共同危险,在客观方面各个侵权主体的侵权行为之间存在着相互依存和相互结合的关系。而侵权主体重叠的各个侵权主体侵权行为在主客观方面都不存在共同性,只有主次之分、先后之分。
共同侵权的侵权结果具有单一性,即共同侵权行为所造成的损害结果为一个统一而不可分割的整体。侵权主体重叠的各个侵权主体的侵权行为虽与共同侵权行为一样给同一个受害人造成损害结果,而且对各侵权行为造成的损害结果也不是能够进行明确的分割,但其侵权结果不具有单一性,而具有复合性,后一侵权行为明显加重了损害结果,扩大了受害人的损失。
共同侵权的侵权责任具有连带性,即各个共同侵权行为 人对受害人应负连带责任,他们都有义务向受害人负全部的赔偿责任,受害人也有权在共同侵权行为人中选择责任主体。侵权主体重叠的侵权责任不具有连带性,即各个侵权行为人对受害人不负连带责任,只有主侵权行为人有义务首先向受害人负全部的赔偿责任,然后根据次侵权行为人的过错,由已负全部赔偿责任的主侵权行为人向次侵权行为人追偿,受害人不能直接选择次侵权行为人作为责任主体,次侵权行为人可以以造成受害人的损害结果 另外还存在主侵权行为为由进行抗辩。
综上所述,笔者认为侵权主体重叠追偿制度既保护了受害人的合法权益,也确保了侵权行为人承担责任的公正性。侵权主体重叠追偿制度和共同侵权行为连带责任赔偿制度、混合过错责任减轻制度、公平责任责任分担制度等构成一个完整的侵权责任主体体系。
以上是笔者在工作实践中的一点初浅认识,仅为探讨,以促进司法公正形象之完善。
江西省万安县人民法院 刘俊明 王小丽
中华人民共和国律师暂行条例(附英文)
全国人民代表大会常务委员会
中华人民共和国律师暂行条例(附英文)
全国人大常委会
(一九八0年八月二十六日第五届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第十五次会议通议)
目 录
第一章 律师的任务和权利
第二章 律师资格
第三章 律师的工作机构
第四章 附则
第一章 律师的任务和权利
第一条 律师是国家的法律工作者,其任务是对国家机关、企业事业单位、社会团体、人民公社和公民提供法律帮助,以维护法律的正确实施,维护国家、集体的利益和公民的合法权益。
第二条 律师的主要业务如下:
(一)接受国家机关、企业事业单位、社会团体、人民公社的聘请,担任法律顾问。
(二)接受民事案件当事人的委托,担任代理人参加诉讼。
(三)接受刑事案件被告人的委托或者人民法院的指定,担任辩护人;接受自诉案件自诉人、公诉案件被害人及其近亲属的委托,担任代理人,参加诉讼。
(四)接受非诉讼事件当事人的委托,提供法律帮助,或者担任代理人,参加调解、仲裁活动。
(五)解答关于法律的询问,代写诉讼文书和其它有关法律事务的文书。
律师应当通过全部业务活动,宣传社会主义法制。
第三条 律师进行业务活动,必须以事实为根据,以法律为准绳,忠实于社会主义事业和人民的利益。
律师依法执行职务,受国家法律保护,任何单位、个人不得干涉。
第四条 律师担任法律顾问的责任,是为聘请单位就业务上的法律问题提供意见,草拟、审查法律事务文书,代理参加诉讼、调解或者仲裁活动,维护聘请单位的合法权益。
第五条 律师担任诉讼和非诉讼事件代理人的责任,是在所受委托的权限内,维护委托人的合法权益。
律师在代理权限内的诉讼行为和法律行为,与委托人自己的诉讼行为和法律行为有同等效力。
第六条 律师担任刑事辩护人的责任,是根据事实和法律,维护被告人的合法权益。
律师认为被告人没有如实陈述案情,有权拒绝担任辩护人。
第七条 律师参加诉讼活动,有权依照有关规定,查阅本案材料,向有关单位、个人调查。律师担任刑事辩护人时,可以同在押的被告人会见和通信。
律师进行前款所列活动,有关单位、个人有责任给予支持。
律师对于在业务活动中接触的国家机密和个人阴私,有保守秘密的责任。
第二章 律师资格
第八条 热爱中华人民共和国,拥护社会主义制度,有选举权和被选举权的下列公民,经考核合格,可以取得律师资格,担任律师:
(一)在高等院校法律专业毕业,并且做过两年以上司法工作、法律教学工作或者法学研究工作的;
(二)受过法律专业训练,并且担任过人民法院审判、人民检察院检察员的;
(三)受过高等教育,做过三年以上经济、科技等工作,熟悉本专业以及与本专业有关的法律、法令,并且经过法律专业训练,适合从事律师工作的;
(四)其他具有本条第(一)项或第(二)项所列人员的法律业务水平,并具有高等学校文化水平,适合从事律师工作的。
第九条 取得律师资格,须经省、自治区、直辖市司法厅(局)考核批准,发给律师证书,并报中华人民共和国司法部备案。司法部发现审批不当的,应当通知司法厅(局)重新审查。
第十条 取得律师资格的人员不能脱离本职的,可以担任兼职律师。兼职律师所在单位应当给予支持。
人民法院、人民检察院、人民公安机关的现职人员不得兼做律师工作。
第十一条 高等院校法律专业毕业生或者经过法律专业训练的人员,经省、自治区、直辖市司法厅(局)考核批准,可以担任实习律师。
实习律师的实习期为两年。实习期满,依照本条例第九条规定的程序,授予律师资格;考核不合格的,可以延长其实习期。
第十二条 律师严重不称职的,得经省、自治区、直辖市司法厅(局)决定,报司法部批准,取消其律师资格。
第三章 律师的工作机构
第十三条 律师执行职务的工作机构是法律顾问处。
法律顾问处是事业单位。受国家司法行政机关的组织领导和业务监督。
第十四条 法律顾问处按县、市、市辖区设立。必要时,经司法部批准,可以设立专业性的法律顾问处。
法律顾问处之间没有隶属关系。
第十五条 法律顾问处的主要任务,是领导律师开展业务工作,组织律师学习政治和法律业务知识,总结、交流律师的工作经验。
第十六条 法律顾问处设主任一人,根据需要,可以设副主任。主任、副主任均由本处律师选举产生,报经省、自治区、直辖市司法厅(局)批准,任期为三年,连选得连任。
法律顾问处主任、副主任领导法律顾问处的工作,并且必须执行律师职务。
第十七条 律师承办业务,由法律顾问处统一接受委托,并且统一收费。
法律顾问处给律师分配任务,应当根据实际条件尽量满足委托人的指名要求。
第十八条 法律顾问处可以指派律师到外地进行业务活动,当地法律顾问处应当给予帮助。
第十九条 为维护律师的合法权益,交流工作经验,促进律师工作的开展,增进国内外法律工作者的联系,建立律师协会。
律师协会是社会团体。组织章程由律师协会制订。
第四章 附 则
第二十条 律师职称标准、律师奖惩规定和律师收费办法,由司法部另行制订。
第二十一条 本条例自一九八二年一月一日起施行。
Important Notice: (注意事项)
英文本源自中华人民共和国务院法制局编译, 中国法制出版社出版的《中华人民
共和国涉外法规汇编》(1991年7月版).
当发生歧意时, 应以法律法规颁布单位发布的中文原文为准.
This English document is coming from "LAWS AND REGULATIONS OF THE
PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA GOVERNING FOREIGN-RELATED MATTERS" (1991.7)
which is compiled by the Brueau of Legislative Affairs of the State
Council of the People's Republic of China, and is published by the China
Legal System Publishing House.
In case of discrepancy, the original version in Chinese shall prevail.
Whole Document (法规全文)
INTERIM REGULATIONS OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ON LAWYERS
(Adopted at the 15th Meeting of the Standing Committee of the
Fifth National People's Congress and promulgated by Order No. 5 of the
Standing Committee of the National People's Congress on August 26, 1980,
and effective as of January 1, 1982)
Contents
Chapter I The Task and Rights of Lawyers
Chapter II The Qualifications of Lawyers
Chapter III Business Organizations of Lawyers
Chapter IV Supplementary Provisions
Chapter I The Task and Rights of Lawyers
Article 1
Lawyers are state legal workers whose task is to give legal assistance to
state organs, enterprises and institutions, public organizations, people's
communes and citizens in order to ensure the correct implementation of the
law and protect the interests of the state and collectives as well as the
lawful rights and interests of citizens.
Article 2
The principal duties of lawyers shall be:
(1) to accept the mandate of state organs, enterprises and institutions,
public organizations and people's communes to serve as their legal
advisers;
(2) to accept the mandate of a party to a civil action to serve as his
representative in litigation;
(3) to accept the mandate of a defendant or the assignment of a people's
court to serve as his defender in a criminal case; to accept the mandate
of a private prosecutor or of the victim and his near relatives in a
public prosecution to serve as their representative in litigation;
(4) to accept the mandate of a party in a nonlitigious matter to give
legal assistance or serve as its representative in mediation or
arbitration;
(5) to give consultative advice on legal questions and draft documents in
connection with litigation or other legal matters.
Lawyers shall publicize the socialist legal system through all their
professional activities.
Article 3
In performing their duties, lawyers shall serve the cause of socialism and
the interests of the people, act on the basis of facts and take the law as
the criterion. In the performance of their functions according to law,
lawyers shall be protected by the law of the state, subject to no
interference by any organization or individual.
Article 4
When being retained by an organization as its legal adviser, a lawyer
shall have the responsibility to give advice on legal questions arising
from the client organization, draft and examine legal documents for it,
represent it in litigation, mediation or arbitration, and safeguard its
lawful rights and interests.
Article 5
When acting as representatives in litigation and nonlitigious matters,
lawyers shall have the responsibility to safeguard the lawful rights and
interests of the client within the scope of the mandate.
Within the scope of the mandate, the lawyer's procedural and legal acts
shall have the same effect as those of the client.
Article 6
When acting as defenders in criminal cases, lawyers shall have the
responsibility to safeguard the lawful rights and interests of the
defendants on the basis of facts and the law. A lawyer may refuse to act
as the defender of a defendant if he believes that the defendant has not
truthfully stated the facts of the case to him.
Article 7
In legal proceedings, lawyers shall have the right, to consult the
materials of the case and may make enquiries from organizations and
persons concerned in accordance with relevant regulations. When acting as
defenders in criminal cases, lawyers may meet and correspond with the
defendants held in custody.
The organizations and persons concerned shall have the duty to render
assistance to the lawyers engaged in the activities mentioned in the
preceding paragraph. Lawyers shall have the responsibility to keep
confidential state secrets and matters of personal privacy which they come
into contact with in their work.
Chapter II The Qualifications of Lawyers
Article 8
The undermentioned citizens who cherish the People's Republic of China,
support the socialist system and have the right to vote and stand for
election shall be eligible as lawyers after passing an examination:
(1) those who have graduated from law faculties of universities or
colleges and have been engaged for two or more years in judicial work,
legal instruction or jurisprudential studies;
(2) those who have had professional legal training and have worked as
judges in people's court or as procurators in people's procuratorates;
(3) those who have received college education, have completed three or
more years of economic, scientific and technological work, are proficient
in their professions and the relevant laws and decrees thereof, and have
gone through professional legal training and who are fit for the work of a
lawyer; and
(4) those who have attained the same level of knowledge of practical legal
work as is required of persons prescribed in Items (1) and (2) above and
the same level of learning as is given by college education and who are
fit for the work of a lawyer.
Article 9
To be eligible as a lawyer, a person must be examined and approved by the
judicial department (bureau) of a province, autonomous region, or
municipality directly under the Central Government and issued a lawyer's
certificate, and a report shall be made to the Ministry of Justice of the
People's Republic of China for the record. Upon discovery of an improper
examination and approval, the Ministry of Justice shall instruct the
relevant judicial department (bureau) to conduct a reexamination.
Article 10
Those who are eligible as lawyers but are unable to leave their present
positions to practise law may act as part-time lawyers. The current
organizations in which they are working shall support such arrangements.
Personnel presently attached to the people's courts, people's
procuratorates and people's public security organs may not act as part-
time lawyers.
Article 11
Those who have graduated from law faculties of universities or colleges or
have gone through professional legal training may act as apprentice
lawyers after examination and approval by the judicial departments
(bureaus) of provinces, autonomous regions, or municipalities directly
under the Central Government.
The training period for apprentice lawyers shall be two years. Upon
completion of the training period, apprentice lawyers shall be given
lawyers credentials in accordance with the procedure prescribed in Article
9 of these Regulations; the training period may be extended if an
apprentice lawyer fails to pass the examination.
Article 12
Lawyers who are incompetent shall be disqualified as lawyers by decision
of the judicial departments (bureaus) of provinces, autonomous regions, or
municipalities directly under the Central Government and with the approval
of the Ministry of Justice.
Chapter III Business Organizations of Lawyers
Article 13
Legal advisory offices shall be the business organizations from which
lawyers perform their duties.
Legal advisory offices shall be public institutions under the
organizational leadership and professional supervision of the judicial
administrative organs of the state.
Article 14
Legal advisory offices shall be established in counties, cities and
municipal districts. When necessary, specialized legal advisory offices
may be established with the approval of the Ministry of Justice.
Legal advisory offices shall not be subordinate to one another.
Article 15
The principal functions of a legal advisory office shall be to direct
lawyers in the development of their professional work, to organize their
political studies and professional studies in law and to sum up and
exchange their work experience.
Article 16
A legal advisory office shall have one director and may have deputy
directors where necessary. The director and deputy directors shall be
elected by the lawyers in that office, subject to approval by the judicial
department (bureau) of a province, autonomous region, or municipality
directly under the Central Government. They shall be elected for a term of
three years and may be re-elected to successive terms in office. The
director and deputy director(s) of a legal advisory office shall direct
the work of the office and at the same time perform their duties as
lawyers.
Article 17
The mandates for lawyers to handle cases shall be accepted and service
fees collected exclusively by the legal advisory office.
In the distribution of cases to lawyers, the legal advisory office shall,
as best as possible and according to actual conditions, assign lawyers as
requested by clients.
Article 18
A legal advisory office may appoint lawyers to carry out professional
activities in other localities, and the legal advisory office there shall
provide them with assistance.
Article 19
A lawyers association shall be established to protect the lawful rights
and interests of lawyers, to exchange work experience, to further the
progress of lawyers work and to promote contacts between legal workers
both at home and abroad.
The lawyers association is a social organization. It shall formulate its
own articles of association.
Chapter IV Supplementary Provisions
Article 20
The standards for the title of lawyer, the regulations on awards and
penalties for lawyers and the measures for the collection of service fees
shall be stipulated separately by the Ministry of Justice.
Article 21
These Regulations shall go into effect on January 1, 1982.
1980年8月26日